27 July 2010

ISTANBUL

Istanbul, historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople is the largest city in Turkey and 5th largest city proper in the world with a population of 12.8 million, also making it the second largest metropolitan area in Europe by population, and the largest metropolitan city proper. Istanbul is also a megacity, as well as the cultural, economic, and financial centre of Turkey. The city covers 39 districts of the Istanbul province. It is located on the Bosphorus Strait and encompasses the natural harbour known as the Golden Horn, in the northwest of the country. It extends both on the European (Thrace) and on the Asian (Anatolia) sides of the Bosphorus, and is thereby the only metropolis in the world that is situated on two continents. Istanbul is a designated alpha world city.
In its long history, Istanbul has served as the capital city of the Roman Empire (330–395), the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922). The city was chosen as joint European Capital of Culture for 2010. Historic areas of Istanbul were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1985.
Istanbul is located in northwestern Turkey within the Marmara Region on a total area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq miles). The Bosphorus, which connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea, divides the city into a European side, comprising the historic and economic centres, and an Asian, Anatolian side; as such, Istanbul is the only bi-continental city in the world. The city is further divided by the Golden Horn, a natural harbor bounding the peninsula where the former Byzantium and Constantinople were founded. In the late-19th century, a wharf was constructed in Galata at the mouth of the Golden Horn, replacing a sandy beach that once formed part of the inlet’s coastline. The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn at the heart of present-day Istanbul has deterred attacking forces for thousands of years and still remains a prominent feature of the city’s landscape.
The historic peninsula is said to be built on seven hills, each topped by an imperial mosque, surrounded by 22 kilometers (14 miles) of city walls; the largest of these hills is the site of Topkap? Palace on the Sarayburnu. Rising from the opposite side of the Golden Horn is another, conical hill, where the modern Beyoglu district is situated. Because of the topography, buildings were once constructed with the help of terraced retaining walls (some of which are still visible in older parts of the city), and roads in Beyoglu were laid out in the form of steps. Uskudar on the Asian side exhibits similarly hilly characteristics, with the terrain gradually extending down to the Bosphorus coast, but the landscape in Semsipasa and Ayazma is more abrupt, akin to a promontory. The highest point in Istanbul is Caml?ca Hill (also on the Asian side), with an altitude of 288 meters (945 ft).
Istanbul is situated near the North Anatolian Fault on the boundary between the African and Eurasian plates. This fault zone, which runs from northern Anatolia to the Sea of Marmara, has been responsible for several deadly earthquakes throughout the city’s history. Among the most devastating of these seismic events was the 1509 earthquake, which caused a tsunami that broke over the walls of the city, destroyed over 100 mosques, and killed more than 10,000 people. More recently, in 1999, an earthquake with its epicenter in nearby Izmit left 17,000 people dead, including 1,000 people in Istanbul’s suburbs. Istanbulites remain concerned that an even more catastrophic seismic event may be in Istanbul’s near future, as thousands of structures recently built to accommodate the city’s rapidly increasing population may not have been constructed properly. Seismologists say the risk of a 7.6-magnitude earthquake striking Istanbul by 2030 is greater than sixty percent.
Istanbul has a Mediterranean climate according to the Koppen climate classification system, although its climate becomes more marine toward the northwest. Microclimates arise due to the hilly, coastal, and inland areas that all compose the topography of the city’s expansive domain.
Temperatures in northwestern Turkey, including Istanbul, are influenced by two competing seafaring winds—the northeasterly Poyraz wind, which brings cool air off the Black Sea, and the stronger, southwesterly Lodos wind, which provides warm air from over the Mediterranean. Summers are generally hot and dry, with July and August averaging 23 °C (73 °F) and only four days of rain. Extreme heat, however, is uncommon, as temperatures rise above 32 °C (90 °F) just five times each year. Winters are much colder and wetter, with about eighteen rainy days each December and January. The average winter day in Istanbul receives just three hours of sunlight and, unlike most other cities with Mediterranean climates, sub-freezing temperatures and light snow are perennial occurrences. Snow tends to linger around for a mere few days, as wintry events are often followed by warm, southerly winds.
Istanbul is known to have a persistently high humidity, which can exacerbate the moderate summer heat. The humidity is especially salient during the morning hours, when humidity generally reaches eighty percent and fog is very common. The city receives fog an average of 228 days each year, with the highest concentration of foggy days being in the winter months. Thunderstorms are uncommon, occurring just 23 days each year, but they occur most frequently in the summer and early autumn months. Istanbul has an annual average of 124 days with significant precipitation, which together generate around 680 mm (27 in) of rain. The highest temperature ever recorded in Istanbul is 41 °C (106 °F) and the lowest temperature ever recorded is ?9 °C (16 °F).

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